Table 1 Overview of characteristics of data linkage studies, stratified by categories based on data sources used
Author | Year | Location | Level of data linking | Number of data sources used | Study aim |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Antibiotic use + AMR (n = 9) | |||||
Clifton et al. [10] | 2018 | England | Patient | 3 | Association between azithromycin exposure and Neisseria gonorrhoea azithromycin susceptibility |
Hirabayashi et al. [11] | 2020 | Japan | Region | 2 | Association between the frequency of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates with an IMP-6 phenotype and usage of carbapenems, fluoroquinolones, and third-generation cephalosporins |
Houben et al. [12] | 2014 | The Netherlands | Hospital | 2 | AMR and use of selective digestive decontamination/selective oropharyngeal decontamination in intensive care units |
Kenyon et al. [13] | 2020 | Europe | Country | 2 | Association between antibiotic consumption and AMR in Neisseria gonorrhoeae |
Kenyon et al. [14] | 2020 | Europe | Country | 2 | Association between prevalence of NG-MAST genogroups associated with decreased susceptibility to cephalosporins and fluoroquinolones and consumption of these antibiotics |
Manoharan-Basil et al. [15] | 2022 | Europe | Country | 2 | Association between consumption of quinolones and cephalosporins and the time-lagged prevalence of resistance to these antimicrobial classes |
McDonnell et al. [16] | 2024 | England | Region | 2 | Association between antibiotic prescribing intensity and rates of UTI resistance |
Pouwels et al. [17] | 2019 | England | Region | 2 | Evaluation of selection and co-selection by antibiotic use among Escherichia coli isolated from urinary samples |
Rahman et al. [5] | 2023 | Europe | Country | 3 | Long-term effect of antibiotic use on AMR |
Antibiotic use + AMR + population characteristics (n = 7) | |||||
Boszczowski et al. [18] | 2020 | Brazil | Region | 4 | Impact of overall antibiotic use on the incidence of bloodstream infections in intensive care units, adjusted by socioeconomic factors, and quality and access to healthcare |
Buczkowska et al. [19] | 2024 | England | Patient | 2 | Linking data from patient questionnaires and genome sequencing (including AMR profiles) from enteric fever cases |
Maugeri et al. [20] | 2023 | Europe | Country | 3 | Evaluating how demographic, economic, governance, health and freedom characteristics contribute to antibiotic consumption and AMR |
Maugeri et al. [21] | 2023 | Europe | Country | 4 | Association between temperature change and AMR, considering antibiotic use, population density, gross domestic product per capita and governance indicators |
Terahara et al. [22] | 2019 | Japan | Region | 3 | Assessing the correlation between fluoroquinolone consumption and levofloxacin resistance in Escherichia coli |
Terahara et al. [23] | 2019 | Japan | Region | 3 | Assessing associations between carbapenem use and the prevalence of imipenem/meropenem resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa |
Van Bijnen et al. [24] | 2015 | Europe | Primary care practice | 3 | Assessing risk factors for nasal carriage of resistant Staphylococcus aureus including ecological exposure to antibiotics |
Antibitoic use + population characteristics (n = 10) | |||||
Kenyon et al. [25] | 2020 | Worldwide | Country | 3 | Association between antibiotic consumption, governance and cultural traits |
Kim et al. [26] | 2023 | US | Patient | 2 | Association between antibiotic prescription and self-reported sociodemographic characteristics |
Kwong et al. [27] | 2009 | Canada | Region | 3 | Evaluating the effect of universal influenza immunization on antibiotic prescriptions |
Norris et al. [28] | 2005 | New Zealand | Region | 2 | Association between antibiotic use and gender, age, and socioeconomic status |
Opatola et al. [29] | 2024 | Wales | Patient | 5 | Association between child weight and repeated antibiotic prescription |
Patterson et al. [30] | 2019 | Ireland | Patient | 2 | Compare antibiotic prescribing in different settings (care home vs community) to inform AMS interventions |
Sarpong et al. [31] | 2015 | US | Region | 2 | Relationship between individual, family, and community level characteristics on antibiotic use |
Schuts et al. [32] | 2019 | The Netherlands | Patient | 2 | Associations between appropriate knowledge on antibiotics, ethnicity, and antibiotic use |
Tarkhashvili et al. [33] | 2023 | US | Region | 2 | Effect of the prevalence of poverty on antibiotic prescribing rates |
Vo et al. [34] | 2025 | US | Patient, Long term care facility | 4 | Association between facility-level antibiotic prescribing, individual-level factors and antibiotic use among nursing home residents |
AMR + population characteristics (n = 13) | |||||
Aliabadi et al. [9] | 2022 | England | Patient, Primary care practice | 4 | Creating a comprehensive epidemiological picture of Escherichia coli bacteraemia trends and risk factors |
Francois Watkins et al. [35] | 2024 | US | Patient | 2 | Influence of patient and isolate factors on clinical outcomes of infections with resistant or susceptible Salmonella |
Chen et al. [36] | 1998 | US | Region | 2 | Association between socioeconomic status and increased risk of drug-resistant invasive pneumococcal infections |
Cohen et al. [37] | 2014 | Worldwide | Country | 5 | Factors associated with transmission of highly drug resistant tuberculosis |
Cordova et al. [38] | 2004 | Australia | Patient | 2 | Factors associated with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection |
Fuhrmeister et al. [39] | 2023 | Worldwide | Region | 4 | Relationship between AMR and community access to drinking water and sanitation |
Grass et al. [40] | 2019 | US | Patient | 2 | Association between quinolone susceptibility and international travel |
Li et al. [41] | 2023 | China | Region | 2 | Association between ambient temperature and AMR |
Ljung et al. [42] | 2011 | Sweden | Patient | 2 | Geographical and educational differences in fluoroquinolone prescription in the treatment of urinary tract infection |
Mollendorf et al. [43] | 2014 | South Africa | Patient | 3 | Risk factors for pneumococcal ceftriaxone nonsusceptibility |
Shiferaw et al. [44] | 2012 | US | Patient | 2 | Identification of predictors of AMR in Shigella isolates |
Singh et al. [45] | 2009 | Canada | Patient | 2 | Demographic and risk behaviour information and AMR in Neisseria gonorrhoeae |
Zhen et al. [46] | 2021 | China | Region | 2 | Association between AMR and socioeconomic factors |
Antibiotic use + AMR + animal data (n = 5) | |||||
Allel et al. [47] | 2023 | Worldwide | Country | Not clear, at least 10 | Associations between socioeconomic, anthropogenic, and environmental indicators of AMR in humans and food-producing animals |
Kenyon et al. [48] | 2021 | Worldwide | Country | 3 | Association between fluoroquinolone use in animals and fluoroquinolone resistance in human pathogens |
Kenyon et al. [49] | 2022 | Worldwide | Country | 3 | Association between use of macrolides in food-producing animals and the prevalence of macrolide resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae in humans |
Vieira et al. [50] | 2011 | Europe | Country | 3 | Correlations between AMR in Escherichia coli blood stream infections in humans and animals, and antibiotic use |
Zhang et al. [51] | 2019 | Europe | Country | 5 | Factors related to fluoroquinolone resistance and antimicrobial consumption in humans and animals |
Antibiotic use + AMR + third (n = 4) | |||||
Aliabadi et al. [52] | 2021 | England | Primary care practice | 4 | Effectiveness of a national antimicrobial stewardship intervention on Escherichia coli bacteraemia |
Ironmonger et al. [53] | 2018 | England | Primary care practice | 4 | Effect of general practice characteristics and antibiotic prescriptions on AMR among Escherichia coli from urine |
Lishman et al. [4] | 2018 | England | Primary care practice | 3 | Association between use of trimethoprim and nitrofurantoin and the incidence of (resistant) urinary tract infection related bacteraemia |
Verhoef et al. [54] | 2016 | The Netherlands | Long term care facility | 3 | Predictors of AMR in long-term care facilities |